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Muhammad c. 570–632

Early Life and Background

Birth and Lineage: Muhammad was born around the year 570 CE in Mecca, a city in the Arabian Peninsula. He belonged to the Quraysh tribe, a powerful and respected clan within the region. His father, Abdullah, died before he was born, and his mother, Amina, passed away when he was only six years old, leaving him an orphan. He was then raised by his grandfather, Abdul Muttalib, and later by his uncle, Abu Talib.

Early Life and Reputation: Muhammad grew up to be known as Al-Amin, meaning “the Trustworthy,” due to his honest and upright character. He worked as a merchant and shepherd, gaining a reputation for fairness and integrity. Around the age of 25, Muhammad entered the service of a wealthy widow named Khadijah, managing her trading caravans. Impressed by his character, Khadijah proposed marriage, and they were married soon after, having four daughters and two sons together.

Spiritual Journey and Prophethood

The First Revelation: At the age of 40, Muhammad began to seek solitude and reflection in the cave of Hira, located on the outskirts of Mecca. During one of these retreats, in 610 CE, he received his first revelation from the archangel Gabriel. This event marked the beginning of his prophethood. Gabriel conveyed to Muhammad the words of Allah (God), which would later be compiled into Islam’s holy book, the Quran.

Initial Preaching and Opposition: Muhammad initially shared his revelations privately with close family and friends. His first followers included his wife Khadijah, his cousin Ali, his friend Abu Bakr, and his adopted son Zaid. As he began to preach more publicly, he called for the worship of one God, social justice, and moral reform. His message challenged the existing social order, particularly the polytheistic beliefs and practices of Mecca’s ruling elites, leading to significant opposition and persecution of his followers.

Establishing a Community and Political Leadership

The Hijra to Medina: In 622 CE, facing increasing hostility in Mecca, Muhammad and his followers migrated to the city of Yathrib, later known as Medina. This migration, known as the Hijra, marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. In Medina, Muhammad was not only a spiritual leader but also became a political leader, mediating conflicts and uniting the diverse tribes of the city under the Constitution of Medina, which established a pluralistic and inclusive community.

Building a Muslim Community: In Medina, Muhammad established the foundations of the Muslim community (Ummah). He emphasized principles of justice, equality, and the welfare of the community, instituting various social and economic reforms. The community in Medina grew rapidly, attracting converts from various tribes and regions. Muhammad’s leadership was marked by his ability to balance spiritual guidance with practical governance.

Consolidation and Expansion

Conflicts and Treaties: Muhammad’s leadership in Medina led to several military engagements with the Quraysh of Mecca and other tribes. Notable battles include the Battle of Badr (624 CE), where the Muslims achieved a significant victory, and the Battle of Uhud (625 CE), where they faced setbacks. Despite these conflicts, Muhammad also pursued diplomacy and treaty-making, the most famous being the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah (628 CE), which established a ten-year truce with the Meccans and allowed Muslims to perform the pilgrimage to Mecca.

Conquest of Mecca: In 630 CE, Muhammad and his followers peacefully entered Mecca after the Quraysh violated the terms of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah. This event, known as the Conquest of Mecca, marked a significant turning point. Muhammad forgave his former enemies and cleansed the Kaaba of its idols, re-establishing it as the central place of worship for Islam. The conquest solidified his position as the leading figure in the Arabian Peninsula.

Final Years and Legacy

Final Pilgrimage and Farewell Sermon: In 632 CE, Muhammad performed his final pilgrimage to Mecca, known as the Hajj. During this pilgrimage, he delivered his Farewell Sermon, emphasizing equality, justice, and the importance of adhering to the teachings of Islam. He reiterated key principles such as the sanctity of life and property, the rights of women, and the brotherhood of all Muslims.

Death and Succession: Shortly after his return to Medina, Muhammad fell ill and passed away on June 8, 632 CE. His death marked the end of his earthly life but not his influence. The community he founded continued to grow, and his teachings, preserved in the Quran and Hadith (sayings and actions of Muhammad), provided the foundation for the Islamic civilization.

Muhammad’s Influence as a Spiritual and Political Leader

Spiritual Leadership

Revelation and the Quran: Muhammad’s primary role as a spiritual leader was to convey the revelations he received from Allah. The Quran, considered the verbatim word of God, is the central religious text of Islam, guiding the beliefs and practices of Muslims worldwide. Muhammad’s teachings emphasized monotheism, ethical conduct, and social justice, transforming the spiritual landscape of the Arabian Peninsula.

Hadith and Sunnah: In addition to the Quran, Muhammad’s sayings and actions (Hadith and Sunnah) serve as important sources of guidance for Muslims. These texts cover various aspects of life, including prayer, fasting, charity, and interpersonal relations, providing a comprehensive framework for living a righteous life.

Political Leadership

Statecraft and Governance: As the leader of the Muslim community in Medina, Muhammad demonstrated remarkable political acumen. He established a system of governance based on principles of justice, consultation, and welfare. The Constitution of Medina is often cited as one of the earliest examples of a written constitution, outlining the rights and duties of citizens and ensuring coexistence among diverse groups.

Social Reforms: Muhammad’s leadership brought significant social reforms, addressing issues such as poverty, slavery, and women’s rights. He promoted charity, encouraged the fair treatment of slaves, and advocated for the rights and dignity of women, challenging many of the social norms of his time.

Diplomacy and Warfare: Muhammad’s approach to conflict was characterized by a balance of diplomacy and warfare. He negotiated treaties and alliances to ensure the security and stability of the Muslim community while also defending it against external threats. His strategic acumen in both peace and conflict helped consolidate the position of the Muslim community in the region.

Legacy and Impact

Spread of Islam: After Muhammad’s death, the Muslim community, guided by his teachings and the leadership of his successors (Caliphs), expanded rapidly. Within a century, Islam spread across the Middle East, North Africa, and beyond, becoming one of the world’s major religions.

Cultural and Scientific Contributions: The Islamic civilization that emerged from Muhammad’s teachings made significant contributions to various fields, including science, medicine, mathematics, literature, and art. The preservation and advancement of knowledge during the Islamic Golden Age had a profound impact on the development of global civilization.

Enduring Influence: Today, Muhammad is revered by over a billion Muslims worldwide as the final prophet and a model of moral and ethical conduct. His life and teachings continue to inspire individuals and communities, shaping their spiritual, social, and political lives.

In summary, Muhammad’s roles as a spiritual and political leader were deeply interconnected, each reinforcing the other. His ability to integrate spiritual guidance with practical governance allowed him to build a cohesive and enduring community, leaving a lasting legacy that continues to influence the world today.

References:

  1.  He is referred to by many appellations, including Muhammad ibn Abd Allah, Messenger of God, Prophet Muhammad, God’s Apostle, Last Prophet of Islam, and others; there are also variant spellings of Muhammad, such as Mohamet, Mohammed, Mahamad, Muhamad, Mohamed, and many others.
  2. ^ Goldman 1995, p. 63, gives 8 June 632 CE, the dominant Islamic tradition. Many earlier (primarily non-Islamic) traditions refer to him as still alive at the time of the Muslim conquest of Palestine.
  3. ^ According to Welch, Moussalli & Newby 2009, writing for the Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World: “The Prophet of Islam was a religious, political, and social reformer who gave rise to one of the great civilizations of the world. From a modern, historical perspective, Muḥammad was the founder of Islam. From the perspective of the Islamic faith, he was God’s Messenger (rasūl Allāh), called to be a “warner,” first to the Arabs and then to all humankind.”
  4. ^ See also Quran 43:31 cited in EoI; Muhammad.
  5. ^See:
    • Emory C. Bogle (1998), p. 7.
    • Rodinson (2002), p. 71.
  6. ^ The aforementioned Islamic histories recount that as Muhammad was reciting Sūra Al-Najm (Q.53), as revealed to him by the Archangel Gabriel, Satan tempted him to utter the following lines after verses 19 and 20: “Have you thought of Allāt and al-‘Uzzā and Manāt the third, the other; These are the exalted Gharaniq, whose intercession is hoped for.” (Allāt, al-‘Uzzā and Manāt were three goddesses worshiped by the Meccans). cf Ibn Ishaq, A. Guillaume p. 166.
  7. ^ “Apart from this one-day lapse, which was excised from the text, the Quran is simply unrelenting, unaccommodating and outright despising of paganism.” (The Cambridge Companion to Muhammad, Jonathan E. Brockopp, p. 35).
  8. ^ See:
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  13. ^ See for example Marco Schöller, Banu Qurayza, Encyclopedia of the Quran mentioning the differing accounts of the status of Rayhana
  14. ^ See:
  15. ^ See, for example, the Sindhi poem of Shah ʿAbd al-Latif
  16. ^ See:

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