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Christopher Columbus 1451–1506

Christopher Columbus, born between August 25 and October 31, 1451, in the Republic of Genoa (now part of modern Italy), is renowned for his daring voyages across the Atlantic Ocean, which opened the way for the widespread European exploration and colonization of the Americas. His early life, spent in Genoa, a bustling maritime center, profoundly influenced his aspirations and skills as a navigator and explorer.

Family and Education

Columbus was the eldest of five children born to Domenico Colombo, a wool weaver, and Susanna Fontanarossa. Despite his humble beginnings, Columbus received a rudimentary education in reading, writing, and mathematics. His early exposure to the sea and ships in the bustling port of Genoa sparked his interest in navigation and exploration.

Early Seafaring Experience

By his early twenties, Columbus had embarked on his first sea voyages, traveling as far as the Aegean Sea, Northern Europe, and possibly even Iceland. These early expeditions honed his skills in navigation and maritime knowledge, preparing him for the monumental voyages that would define his legacy.

The Quest for a New Route

The Visionary Plan

In the late 15th century, European traders sought new routes to Asia to bypass the overland trade routes controlled by Ottoman and other Muslim empires. Columbus proposed a bold plan: to reach Asia by sailing west across the Atlantic Ocean. His idea was based on a miscalculation of the Earth’s circumference and the belief that Asia was much closer to Europe than it actually was.

Seeking Patronage

Columbus spent several years seeking support for his expedition. After being rejected by Portugal, he turned to Spain. In 1492, King Ferdinand II and Queen Isabella I of Spain agreed to sponsor his voyage, providing him with ships and crew. The agreement, known as the Capitulations of Santa Fe, promised Columbus the title of Admiral of the Ocean Sea and a portion of any riches he discovered.

The First Voyage

Setting Sail

On August 3, 1492, Columbus set sail from Palos de la Frontera, Spain, with three ships: the Santa María, the Pinta, and the Niña. His crew consisted of approximately 90 men, many of whom were experienced sailors. The voyage was fraught with challenges, including disagreements among the crew and the vast, uncharted waters they navigated.

Discovery of the New World

After more than two months at sea, land was sighted on October 12, 1492. Columbus and his crew had reached an island in the present-day Bahamas, which he named San Salvador. Believing he had reached the outskirts of Asia, Columbus referred to the indigenous people he encountered as “Indians.” This initial landing marked the beginning of European exploration and colonization in the Americas.

Exploration and Return

Columbus continued to explore the Caribbean, visiting islands such as Cuba and Hispaniola. He established a small settlement on Hispaniola before returning to Spain in March 1493. His reports of abundant gold and fertile lands intrigued the Spanish monarchy and the broader European audience, leading to further expeditions.

Subsequent Voyages and Discoveries

Second Voyage (1493-1496)

Columbus’s second voyage, launched in September 1493, was a much larger endeavor, comprising 17 ships and about 1,200 men. This expedition aimed to establish permanent colonies in the New World. Columbus explored further into the Caribbean, including the islands of Dominica, Guadeloupe, and Jamaica. He faced challenges in managing the settlements and dealing with conflicts with the indigenous populations.

Third Voyage (1498-1500)

On his third voyage in 1498, Columbus explored the coast of South America, becoming the first European to encounter the mainland of the Americas. He reached present-day Venezuela and realized that this was not Asia but a previously unknown continent. Despite this realization, he continued to face administrative difficulties and resistance from both the colonists and the indigenous people.

Fourth Voyage (1502-1504)

Columbus’s fourth and final voyage aimed to find a passage to the Indian Ocean. Departing in 1502, he explored the coastlines of Central America, including present-day Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. He faced numerous hardships, including severe storms, shipwrecks, and hostile encounters with indigenous groups. Ultimately, he was forced to abandon his quest and return to Spain.

Legacy and Controversy

Impact on Exploration

Christopher Columbus’s voyages had a profound and lasting impact on world history. They opened up the Americas to European exploration and colonization, leading to significant cultural, economic, and political changes. The Columbian Exchange, named after him, brought about the transfer of plants, animals, people, and diseases between the Old and New Worlds, transforming global societies.

Controversial Legacy

Columbus’s legacy is complex and contested. While he is celebrated for his navigational skills and his role in opening up the New World, his expeditions also led to the exploitation and suffering of indigenous populations. The encomienda system, initiated during his governorship, resulted in severe mistreatment and a significant decline in the indigenous population due to disease, forced labor, and violence.

Modern Reassessment

In recent years, there has been a reevaluation of Columbus’s legacy. While his contributions to navigation and exploration are acknowledged, there is also a greater awareness of the negative impacts of his voyages on indigenous peoples. This reassessment has led to debates about how Columbus should be remembered and honored in history.

Conclusion

Christopher Columbus’s voyages mark a pivotal chapter in the history of exploration. His daring expeditions across the Atlantic Ocean paved the way for the European colonization of the Americas, significantly altering the course of world history. Despite the controversies surrounding his legacy, Columbus’s role as a key figure in the Age of Exploration remains undeniable. His achievements in navigation and his impact on global history continue to be studied and debated by historians and scholars worldwide.

Further readings related to history:

References:

  1.  “Marco Polo et le Livre des Merveilles”, p. 37. ISBN 978-2-35404-007-9
  2. ^ Randles, W. G. L. (January 1990). “The Evaluation of Columbus’ ‘India’ Project by Portuguese and Spanish Cosmographers in the Light of the Geographical Science of the Period” (PDF). Imago Mundi. 42 (1): 50. doi:10.1080/03085699008592691. ISSN 0308-5694. S2CID 129588714. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
  3. ^ Khairunnahar; Mahmud, Khandakar Hasan; Islam, Md Ariful (2017). “Error calculation of the selected maps used in the Great Voyage of Christopher Columbus”. The Jahangirnagar Review, Part II. XLI. Jahangirnagar University: 67. ISSN 1682-7422. Retrieved 9 January 2022.
  4. ^ McCormick, Douglas (9 October 2012). “Columbus’s Geographical Miscalculations”. IEEE Spectrum. Retrieved 9 January 2022.
  5. ^ Gunn, Geoffrey C. (2018). Overcoming Ptolemy: The Revelation of an Asian World Region. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 77–78. ISBN 978-1-4985-9014-3. Constructed on a framework of latitude and longitude, the Ptolemy-revival map projections revealed the extent of the known world in relation to the whole. Typically, they displayed a Eurasian landmass extending through 180° of longitude from a prime meridian in the west (variously the Canary Islands or Cape Verde) to a location in the “Far East.”
  6. ^ Zacher, Christian K. (2016). Bedini, Silvio A. (ed.). The Christopher Columbus Encyclopedia. Springer. pp. 676–677. ISBN 978-1-349-12573-9.
  7. ^ Dilke, O. A. W. (2016). “Marinus of Tyre”. In Bedini, Silvio A. (ed.). The Christopher Columbus Encyclopedia. Springer. p. 452. ISBN 978-1-349-12573-9.
  8. ^ Morison, Samuel Eliot (1974). The European Discovery of America: The Southern Voyages A.D. 1492–1616. Oxford University Press. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-19-501377-1.
  9. ^ Butel, Paul (2002). The Atlantic. Routledge. p. 47. ISBN 978-1-134-84305-3.
  10. ^ Morison 1991.
  11. ^ Phillips & Phillips 1992, p. 110.
  12. ^ Edson, Evelyn (2007). The World Map, 1300–1492: The Persistence of Tradition and Transformation. JHU Press. p. 205. ISBN 978-0-8018-8589-1.
  13. ^ Taylor, Alan (2002). American Colonies: The Settling of North America (The Penguin History of the United States, Volume 1). Penguin. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-14-200210-0.
  14. ^ Jensen, De Lamar (1992). Renaissance Europe (2nd ed.). Lexington, Massachusetts: D.C. Heath and Company. p. 341. ISBN 9780669200072.
  15. ^ Gómez, Nicolás Wey (2008). The Tropics of Empire: Why Columbus Sailed South to the Indies. MIT Press. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-262-23264-7. It is also known that wind patterns and water currents in the Atlantic were crucial factors for launching an outward passage from the Canaries: Columbus understood that his chance of crossing the ocean was significantly greater just beyond the Canary calms, where he expected to catch the northeastern trade winds—although, as some authors have pointed out, “westing” from the Canaries, instead of dipping farther south, was hardly an optimal sailing choice, since Columbus’s fleet was bound to lose, as soon it did, the northeasterlies in the mid-Atlantic.
  16. ^ Morison 1991, p. 132.
  17. ^ Morison 1991, p. 314.
  18. ^ Rickey, V. Frederick (1992). “How Columbus Encountered America”. Mathematics Magazine. 65 (4): 219–225. doi:10.2307/2691445. ISSN 0025-570X. JSTOR 2691445.
  19. ^ Morison 1991, pp. 198–99.
  20. ^ Rickey, V. Frederick (1992). “How Columbus Encountered America”. Mathematics Magazine. 65 (4): 224. doi:10.2307/2691445. ISSN 0025-570X. JSTOR 2691445.
  21. ^ Morison 1991, pp. 68–70.
  22. ^ Pinheiro-Marques, Alfredo (2016). “Diogo Cão”. In Bedini, Silvio A. (ed.). The Christopher Columbus Encyclopedia. Springer. p. 97. ISBN 978-1-349-12573-9.
  23. ^ Symcox, Geoffrey; Sullivan, Blair (2016). Christopher Columbus and the Enterprise of the Indies: A Brief History with Documents. Springer. pp. 11–12. ISBN 978-1-137-08059-2. in 1488 Columbus returned to Portugal and once again put his project to João II. Again it was rejected. In historical hindsight this looks like a fatally missed opportunity for the Portuguese crown, but the king had good reason not to accept Columbus’s project. His panel of experts cast grave doubts on the assumptions behind it, noting that Columbus had underestimated the distance to China. And then in December 1488 Bartolomeu Dias returned from his voyage around the Cape of Good Hope. Certain now that they had found the sea route to India and the east, João II and his advisers had no further interest in what probably seemed to them a hare-brained and risky plan.
  24. ^ Dyson 1991, p. 84.
  25. ^ Durant, Will The Story of Civilization vol. vi, “The Reformation”. Chapter XIII, p. 260.
  26. ^ Dyson 1991, pp. 86, 92.
  27. ^ Dyson 1991, p. 92.
  28. ^ Morrison, Geoffrey (15 October 2015). “Exploring The Alhambra Palace And Fortress In Granada, Spain”. Forbes. Archived from the original on 16 October 2015. Retrieved 24 May 2021.
  29. ^ Jump up to:a b c Phillips & Phillips 1992, pp. 131–32.

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