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Causes of the Enlightenment

The Enlightenment era, also known as the Age of Reason, was a transformative period in history that laid the foundation for modern thought and philosophy. Scholars and historians have long debated the factors that precipitated this intellectual revolution, tracing its origins to a convergence of multiple influences that shaped the course of human history.

The Decline of Feudalism and Rise of the Middle Class

One of the key catalysts for the Enlightenment was the gradual decline of feudalism and the emergence of a burgeoning middle class. As feudal structures crumbled and economic power shifted from aristocratic elites to the rising merchant class, a new social order began to take shape. The middle class, comprised of merchants, craftsmen, and professionals, sought to challenge the traditional authority of the monarchy and the church, paving the way for new ideas to flourish.

The Scientific Revolution and Empirical Inquiry

The Scientific Revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries was another pivotal precursor to the Enlightenment. Visionaries such as Galileo, Newton, and Descartes revolutionized the way humans viewed the natural world, emphasizing empirical observation and rational inquiry over blind faith and superstition. This emphasis on scientific reasoning laid the groundwork for the Enlightenment thinkers to question established beliefs and seek rational explanations for phenomena.

The Printing Press and the Spread of Knowledge

The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in the 15th century played a crucial role in disseminating knowledge and fostering intellectual exchange. Books, pamphlets, and newspapers became more accessible to a wider audience, enabling the spread of new ideas and challenging traditional dogmas. The democratization of information empowered individuals to think critically and form their own opinions, fueling the intellectual ferment of the Enlightenment.

Political Turmoil and Social Unrest

The Enlightenment was also shaped by the political turmoil and social unrest that characterized the early modern period. Wars, revolutions, and upheavals such as the English Civil War, the French Revolution, and the American Revolution exposed the flaws and injustices of existing political systems, inspiring Enlightenment thinkers to envision a more just and equitable society. Philosophers like John Locke, Montesquieu, and Rousseau advocated for principles of liberty, equality, and democracy that would later influence the course of history.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the Enlightenment was a complex and multifaceted phenomenon that arose from a confluence of historical, intellectual, and social forces. By examining the interplay of factors such as the decline of feudalism, the Scientific Revolution, the spread of knowledge, and political upheaval, we can begin to unravel the mysteries of this transformative era. The legacy of the Enlightenment continues to resonate in the modern world, reminding us of the enduring power of human reason, progress, and freedom.

Further Readings

Soources

  1.  Michael Atiyah, “Benjamin Franklin and the Edinburgh Enlightenment,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society (Dec 2006) 150#4 pp. 591–606.
  2. ^ Jack Fruchtman, Jr., Atlantic Cousins: Benjamin Franklin and His Visionary Friends (2007)
  3. ^ Charles C. Mann, 1491 (2005)
  4. ^ Paul M. Spurlin, Montesquieu in America, 1760–1801 (1941)
  5. ^ “The Founding Fathers, Deism, and Christianity”. Encyclopædia Britannica.
  6. ^ Charles W. Ingrao, “A Pre-Revolutionary Sonderweg.” German History 20#3 (2002), pp. 279–286.
  7. ^ Katrin Keller, “Saxony: Rétablissement and Enlightened Absolutism.” German History 20.3 (2002): 309–331.
  8. ^ “The German Enlightenment,” German History (Dec 2017) 35#4 pp. 588–602, round table discussion of historiography.
  9. ^ Gagliardo, John G. (1991). Germany under the Old Regime, 1600–1790. pp. 217–234, 375–395.
  10. ^ Richter, Simon J., ed. (2005), The Literature of Weimar Classicism
  11. ^ Owens, Samantha; Reul, Barbara M.; Stockigt, Janice B., eds. (2011). Music at German Courts, 1715–1760: Changing Artistic Priorities.
  12. ^ Kuehn, Manfred (2001). Kant: A Biography.
  13. ^ Van Dulmen, Richard; Williams, Anthony, eds. (1992). The Society of the Enlightenment: The Rise of the Middle Class and Enlightenment Culture in Germany.
  14. ^ Thomas P. Saine, The Problem of Being Modern, or the German Pursuit of Enlightenment from Leibniz to the French Revolution (1997)
  15. ^ Michael J. Sauter, “The Enlightenment on trial: state service and social discipline in eighteenth-century Germany’s public sphere.” Modern Intellectual History 5.2 (2008): 195–223.
  16. ^ Mori, Massimo (1 February 2015). Storia della filosofia moderna (in Italian). Gius.Laterza & Figli Spa. ISBN 978-88-581-1845-0.
  17. ^ D’Onofrio, Federico (2015). On the caoncept of ‘felicitas publica’ in Eighteenth-Century political economy, in History of economic thought.
  18. ^ Niccolò Guasti, “Antonio Genovesi’s Diceosina: Source of the Neapolitan Enlightenment.” History of European ideas 32.4 (2006): 385–405.
  19. ^ Pier Luigi Porta, “Lombard enlightenment and classical political economy.” The European Journal of the History of Economic Thought 18.4 (2011): 521–50.
  20. ^ Franco Venturi, Italy and the Enlightenment: studies in a cosmopolitan century (1972) online
  21. ^ Anna Maria Rao, “Enlightenment and reform: an overview of culture and politics in Enlightenment Italy.” Journal of Modern Italian Studies 10.2 (2005): 142–67.
  22. ^ Aldridge, Alfred Owen. The Ibero-American Enlightenment. Urbana: University of Illinois Press 1971.
  23. ^ De Vos, Paula S. “Research, Development, and Empire: State Support of Science in Spain and Spanish America, Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries,” Colonial Latin America Review 15, no. 1 (June 2006) 55–79.
  24. ^ Bleichmar, Daniela. Visible Empire: Botanical Expeditions & Visual Culture in the Hispanic Enlightenment. Chicago: University of Chicago Press 2012.
  25. ^ Brading, D. A. The First America: The Spanish Monarchy, Creole Patriots, and the Liberal State, 1492–1867 Chapter 23, “Scientific Traveller.” New York: Cambridge University Press 1991 ISBN 0-521-39130-X
  26. ^ Thiessen, Heather. “Spain: Constitution of 1812.” Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture, vol. 5, p. 165. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons 1996.
  27. ^ Cohen, Thomas M. (15 November 2018). “Six Sermons, written by António Vieira”. Journal of Jesuit Studies. 5 (4): 692–695. doi:10.1163/22141332-00504010-11. ISSN 2214-1324.

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