The American Civil War was a very important fight in United States history that lasted from 1861 to 1865. It was like a tug-of-war between the Northern states, called the Union, and the Southern states, which had broken away to form their own country called the Confederacy. The main reasons for the fight were disagreements about slavery, how much power each state should have, and money issues. The war started when the South attacked a fort in South Carolina and ended four years later when the South’s main army gave up. The Civil War was one of the worst wars in American history, with many hundreds of thousands of people killed. It also changed the country forever in many ways, affecting society, the economy, and the government.
During the early 1800s, the Northern and Southern states of the United States grew in very different ways (1)(2). In the North, factories, railroads, and big cities popped up everywhere (1). This part of the country focused less on growing crops and more on making things and selling them to others (2). The South, on the other hand, kept doing what it knew best — farming (3). But their farms weren’t growing vegetables or grains for everyone to eat (3). They were giant cotton plantations that relied on enslaved people to work the land (4). These different ways of making money led to big differences in how people lived (5). The North had many towns and cities with a mix of people from all over (5), while the South was mostly farmland with a social structure like a pyramid (6). Plantation owners were at the very top, and enslaved people were at the very bottom (6). These big differences in lifestyle and priorities caused a lot of tension between the North and the South (7).
On the eve of the Civil War, one of the biggest disagreements between the North and the South was the balance of power between states and the federal government (8). Southern states, in particular, championed states’ rights, believing they should have significant control over their own affairs (8). This included the right to enact their own laws, even regarding slavery, an institution they considered vital (9). They in a forceful, passionate opposed federal interference in their way of life (10).
Political deals (compromises) were tried a few times to fix the growing problems between the northern and southern states of the USA, but none of them worked well enough to stop a war.The Missouri Compromise in 1820 let Missouri join the country as a state that allowed slavery, while Maine joined as a free state. This kept things even in Congress, where both sides had equal power.(11)
Another attempt in 1850 involved a few things, like letting California be a free state but also making a harsher law to find runaway slaves. Again, this didn’t really help much.The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 said new territories could vote on whether to allow slavery. This caused a lot of violence, with people fighting over the issue in Kansas.These deals were just temporary fixes and didn’t solve the real problems. In the end, they actually helped lead to the Civil War.(12)(13)
The Role of Abolitionism
The abolitionist movement, which sought to end slavery, gained momentum in the decades leading up to the Civil War. Abolitionists used various means to spread their message, including literature, speeches, and the Underground Railroad, which helped enslaved people escape to freedom. Some great figures like Frederick Douglass, Harriet Beecher Stowe, and John Brown help mostly in raising awareness and pushing for the end of slavery. The publication of Stowe’s “Uncle Tom’s Cabin” in 1852, for example, had a profound impact on public opinion in the North, galvanizing anti-slavery sentiment. The growing strength of the abolitionist movement alarmed many Southerners, who saw it as a direct threat to their way of life and economic interests.(14)
Election of Abraham Lincoln
The election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860 was the final trigger for the secession of Southern states. Lincoln, representing the newly formed Republican Party, was seen as a moderate on the issue of slavery, but his party was committed to stop the spread of slavery into new territories. His election was unacceptable to many in the South, who feared that his presidency would lead to the abolition of slavery. Following his election, seven Southern states seceded from the Union, forming the Confederate States of America. This secession set the stage for the start of the Civil War, as both sides prepared for the inevitable conflict.(15)
Early Conflicts and the Beginning of War
The Civil War began in earnest with the Confederate attack on Fort Sumter in April 1861. This event rallied the North and led to a call for volunteers to suppress the rebellion. The First Battle of Bull Run, fought in July 1861, was the first major land battle of the war. It resulted in a Confederate victory and shattered any illusions that the war would be short or easily won. Both sides realized that they needed to prepare for a prolonged and grueling conflict.(16)
Key Campaigns and Battles
The American Civil War was shaped by many important campaigns and battles. In 1862, the Union launched the Peninsula Campaign to take Richmond, the Confederate capital, but it was unsuccessful (16). Later that year, the Battle of Antietam, though not a clear victory for either side, became the bloodiest day in American history (17). This gave President Lincoln the chance to announce the Emancipation Proclamation, freeing enslaved people in Confederate states (18). The turning point of the war came in July 1863 with the Union victory at Gettysburg, stopping a major Confederate invasion (19). Also in July 1863, the Union captured Vicksburg after a long siege, gaining control of the Mississippi River and splitting the Confederacy in two (20).
Naval Warfare and Blockades
Ships were very important during the Civil War. The North (Union) had a plan called the Anaconda Plan to squeeze the South (Confederacy) by blocking off their ports (21). This meant no ships could bring in supplies, which hurt the South’s economy over time (22). There were even big battles between ironclad ships, which were like metal forts on water (23). The North also managed to take over important Southern ports, making it even harder for them to get supplies (24).
The Emancipation Proclamation
The Emancipation Proclamation, signed by President Abraham Lincoln in 1863, was a very important document during the American Civil War (25). It declared that all enslaved people living in the states that were fighting against the Union (the Confederacy) would be free (26). This meant that even though it didn’t immediately free all enslaved people in the United States, it completely changed the purpose of the war (27). The war wasn’t just about states staying together (or separating), but about fighting for freedom for all people (28). The Emancipation Proclamation also allowed African Americans to fight for the Union army. This gave the Union more soldiers and helped weaken the Confederacy (29).
Total War and Final Stage
During the later part of the Civil War, the fighting became even more brutal. This type of war, aimed at destroying everything that could support the enemy army, even their farms and homes, is called total war (30). One example of this brutal strategy was General Sherman’s March to the Sea in 1864. He led his Union army across Georgia, destroying railroads, factories, and even some towns (31). This hurt the South’s ability to wage war (32). Another major turning point came in April 1865, when the Union captured Richmond, the Confederate capital (33). Shortly after that, on April 9th, General Lee of the Confederacy surrendered to General Grant of the Union at Appomattox Court House (34). This event basically ended the Civil War, although there was some scattered fighting for a few more weeks (35).
Leaders of the Civil War
The American Civil War was a complex conflict shaped by the actions of many key figures. Understanding these leaders and their roles provides a deeper view into the war’s causes, course, and ultimate outcome (36).
Political Leaders
Abraham Lincoln: As the 16th President of the United States, Abraham Lincoln stands as a important figure in the Civil War. His unwavering leadership, powerful speeches, and important policies, like the Emancipation Proclamation, were instrumental in guiding the Union to victory and ultimately abolishing slavery (37). Lincoln’s tragic assassination in April 1865, just days after the war’s conclusion, left a lasting legacy of national unity and the fight for human freedom (38).
Jefferson Davis: Leading the newly formed Confederate States of America was Jefferson Davis, a former U.S. Senator and Secretary of War. Davis faced the immense challenge of uniting and leading the southern states through a brutal war. His leadership focused on securing Southern independence and navigating the complex political and military landscape of the Confederacy (39).
Military Leaders
The Civil War was ultimately decided on the battlefield, and several key military leaders played important roles.
Union Leaders:
Ulysses S. Grant: Ulysses S. Grant rose to become the Commanding General of the U.S. Army and spearheaded the Union’s military strategy. Grant’s unwavering determination and aggressive tactics, particularly evident in battles like Vicksburg, proved crucial to the Union’s success (40). He is also credited with employing a war of attrition, slowly wearing down the Confederate resources and manpower (41).
William T. Sherman: Another key Union general, William T. Sherman, is best known for his controversial “March to the Sea” across Georgia. This brutal campaign employed a tactic known as total war, aiming to destroy the South’s infrastructure and civilian resources in order to break their will to fight (42). Although controversial, Sherman’s tactics undeniably hastened the end of the war and left a lasting impact on military strategy (43).
Confederate Leaders:
Robert E. Lee: The most prominent Confederate general was Robert E. Lee, whose leadership and strategic brilliance were evident in several battles, including Chancellorsville and the early stages of Gettysburg. Despite facing a larger and more well-equipped Union army, Lee’s tactical skills managed to keep Confederate hopes alive until his eventual surrender at Appomattox Court House (44).
Stonewall Jackson: Earning his nickname for his unwavering courage and determination under fire, Stonewall Jackson was a key Confederate general. His battlefield contributions, particularly at First Bull Run and the Shenandoah Valley Campaign, were significant to the early Confederate war effort (45). Jackson’s death in 1863 was a devastating blow to the Southern cause (46).
Important People in the Fight Against Slavery
Frederick Douglass and Harriet Tubman were two very important people who worked hard to end slavery in the United States (47).
Frederick Douglass:
– Enslaved as a child, he later escaped to freedom (48).
– He became a powerful voice against slavery by writing and giving speeches (49).
– He convinced many people that slavery was wrong and should be abolished (50).
– He also encouraged African Americans to fight for the Union Army in the Civil War, which helped the North win and end slavery (51).
Harriet Tubman:
– She escaped slavery herself and then risked her life to help many other enslaved people reach freedom (52).
– She did this by using a network of safe houses and routes called the Underground Railroad (53).
– During the Civil War, she wasn’t just a conductor on the Underground Railroad. She also became a spy for the Union Army, gathering important information (54).
– She even helped care for sick and wounded soldiers (55).
Economic Consequences
The Civil War damaged the South’s economy very badly (56). War tore apart railroads, farms, and factories, making it hard for the South to get back on its feet (57). Since slavery was abolished, the South lost its free labor force, which was the backbone of their economy (58). Plantation owners were in big trouble without the free workers they depended on (59). On the other hand, the North’s economy boomed because of wartime manufacturing (60). Factories cranked out more weapons, ammo, clothes, and other supplies to keep the Union Army going (61). This industrial growth kept going even after the war, making the United States a rising star in the world of industry (62).
Social Consequences
The Civil War had a huge impact on families and towns everywhere in the United States (63). With so many soldiers dying (about 620,000), almost every family felt the pain of losing someone close to them (64). Soldiers who came back from the war often had a hard time adjusting, both physically from injuries and emotionally from what they had experienced (65). The war also changed the way women were seen in society (66). Because so many men were fighting, women stepped up to do new jobs, like working in factories, managing farms, and even helping the war effort as nurses and spies (67). These experiences gave women a more important place in society and helped pave the way for future movements fighting for equal rights for women (68).
Initial Plans for Reconstruction
Reconstruction was the time after the Civil War when the U.S. tried to fix the problems caused by slavery and its effects on society, politics, and the economy (69). President Lincoln had a plan called the Ten Percent Plan. It said that a Southern state could rejoin the Union if 10% of its voters promised loyalty to the Union and accepted the end of slavery (70). Lincoln wanted this plan to be easy to help the country come back together quickly (71).
Andrew Johnson’s Approach
When President Lincoln was killed, Andrew Johnson became president and continued with a similar plan (72). Johnson’s plan also offered forgiveness to many people who had supported the Confederacy (73). However, Johnson’s plan did not support civil rights for African Americans, which caused problems with Radical Republicans in Congress (74). These Republicans wanted stronger actions to protect the rights of freed slaves and make sure they were included in American society (75).
Radical Reconstruction
Because of Johnson’s weak policies, Congress took control and started their own plan called Radical Reconstruction (76). They passed the Military Reconstruction Acts in 1867, which split the South into five military districts controlled by Union generals (77). This was to make sure civil rights were enforced and African Americans could be involved in politics (78). The Radical Republicans also pushed for the 14th Amendment, which gave citizenship to everyone born or naturalized in the U.S., and the 15th Amendment, which protected voting rights regardless of race (79).
Challenges and Failures
Reconstruction faced many problems (80). Many Southern whites did not like the changes and tried to keep white control through violence and threats (81). Groups like the Ku Klux Klan attacked African Americans and their supporters(82). Economic issues like sharecropping and tenant farming kept many African Americans poor and dependent (83). Corruption and political fights also hurt Reconstruction efforts (84).
End of Reconstruction
Reconstruction ended in 1877 with the Compromise of 1877, which solved the contested 1876 presidential election (85). Rutherford B. Hayes became president, and in return, federal troops were taken out of the South, ending military enforcement of Reconstruction policies (86). This started the Jim Crow era, where Southern states passed laws to take away African Americans’ rights and enforce racial separation (87). Many goals of Reconstruction were not achieved, and its effects are still felt in American society today (88).
Legacy of the Civil War
The Civil War and what happened after it had lasting effects on U.S. politics (89). One major effect was the strengthening of the federal government’s power over the states (90). The war ended the question of whether states could leave the Union, confirming the federal government’s authority (91). This change influenced future policies and governance, giving more power to the national government (92). The amendments passed during and after the war (the 13th, 14th, and 15th) created a foundation for future civil rights progress, even though it took a long time for these rights to be fully realized (93).
Cultural and Memory
The Civil War left a deep cultural mark on the U.S. It has been remembered through monuments, books, and art (94). Many battlefields and sites have been preserved as national parks, reminding people of the war’s scale and the sacrifices made (95). Books like “Gone with the Wind” and works by authors like Shelby Foote and Bruce Catton have shaped how the public sees the war (96). Movies and TV shows have also influenced how the Civil War is remembered and understood (97).
Historical Interpretation
Historians have long debated the causes, events, and outcomes of the Civil War (98). Early views often romanticized the Southern cause and downplayed the role of slavery, a view known as the “Lost Cause” narrative (99). This view portrayed the Confederacy’s fight as a noble struggle for states’ rights rather than a defense of slavery (100). Over time, historians have increasingly recognized slavery as the central issue leading to the war (101). Modern historians continue to study the war’s complexities, including the experiences of soldiers, civilians, and enslaved people (102). These changing views highlight the need to understand the Civil War in all its aspects (103).
Footnote references
2.Shifting Northern Economy: Atack, Jeremy. “Industrialization and the Antebellum North.” The Oxford Handbook of the American Revolution, edited by Peter S. Onuf, Oxford University Press, 2016.
3.Southern Reliance on Cotton: McPherson, James M. Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era. Oxford University Press, 1988.
4.Slave Labor in the South: Genovese, Eugene D. Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slave Made. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1974.
5.Urbanization in the North vs. Rural South: Mitchell, Robert D. “Commercialization of Agriculture in the Antebellum South.” The Journal of Economic History, vol. 28, no. 4, 1968, pp. 779–804.
6.Social Hierarchy in the South: Stampp, Kenneth M. The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in Antebellum South. Vintage Books, 1956.
7.Sectional Tensions: Freehling, William W. The Road to Disunion: Volume I: Secessionists at Bay, 1776–1854. Oxford University Press, 1990.
8.McPherson, James M. Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era. Oxford University Press, 1988.
9.Stampp, Kenneth M. The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in Antebellum South. Vintage Books, 1956.
10.Freehling, William W. The Road to Disunion: Volume I: Secessionists at Bay, 1776–1854. Oxford University Press, 1990.
11. A&E Television Networks, History Channel. (2009, October 27). Missouri Compromise. History.com. Retrieved from https://www.history.com/topics/american-civil-war/missouri-compromise-video
12.A&E Television Networks, History Channel. (2009, October 27). Missouri Compromise. History.com. Retrieved from https://www.history.com/topics/american-civil-war/missouri-compromise-video
13. Senate.gov. (n.d.). The Kansas-Nebraska Act.
14.McPherson, James M. (2017). Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (Illustrated Edition). Oxford University Press
15.https://www.history.com/topics/american-civil-war/election-of-1860
16.Library of Congress: The Civil War in America, April 1861–April 1862
16. McPherson, James M. “Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era.” Oxford University Press, 1988.
17. Foote, Shelby. “The Civil War: A Narrative.” Random House, 1958–1974.
18. Catton, Bruce. “A Stillness at Appomattox.” Doubleday, 1953.
19. Foner, Eric. “Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877.” Harper & Row, 1988.
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21. Symonds, Craig L. “The Civil War at Sea.” Oxford University Press, 2012.
22. Browning, Robert M. “From Cape Charles to Cape Fear: The North Atlantic Blockading Squadron during the Civil War.” University of Alabama Press, 1993.
23. Tucker, Spencer. “Blue and Gray Navies: The Civil War Afloat.” Naval Institute Press, 2006.
24. Musicant, Ivan. “Divided Waters: The Naval History of the Civil War.” HarperCollins, 1995.
25. Berlin, Ira. “The Emancipation Proclamation: Three Views.” Louisiana State University Press, 2006.
26. Franklin, John Hope. “The Emancipation Proclamation.” Doubleday, 1963.
27. Guelzo, Allen C. “Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation: The End of Slavery in America.” Simon & Schuster, 2004.
28. Vorenberg, Michael. “Final Freedom: The Civil War, the Abolition of Slavery, and the Thirteenth Amendment.” Cambridge University Press, 2001.
29. Litwack, Leon F. “Been in the Storm So Long: The Aftermath of Slavery.” Knopf, 1979.
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31. Trudeau, Noah Andre. “Southern Storm: Sherman’s March to the Sea.” HarperCollins, 2008.
32. Fellman, Michael. “Citizen Sherman: A Life of William Tecumseh Sherman.” Random House, 1995.
33. Eicher, David J. “The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War.” Simon & Schuster, 2001.
34. Marvel, William. “Lee’s Last Retreat: The Flight to Appomattox.” University of North Carolina Press, 2002.
35. Rafuse, Ethan S. “Robert E. Lee and the Fall of the Confederacy, 1863–1865.” Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2009.
36. Davis, William C. “Jefferson Davis: The Man and His Hour.” HarperCollins, 1991.
37. McPherson, James M. “Tried by War: Abraham Lincoln as Commander in Chief.” Penguin Press, 2008.
38. Donald, David Herbert. “Lincoln.” Simon & Schuster, 1995.
39. Cooper, William J. “Jefferson Davis, American.” Knopf, 2000.
40. Simpson, Brooks D. “Ulysses S. Grant: Triumph over Adversity, 1822–1865.” Houghton Mifflin, 2000.
41. Bonekemper, Edward H. “Grant and Lee: Victorious American and Vanquished Virginian.” Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007.
42. Marszalek, John F. “Sherman: A Soldier’s Passion for Order.” Free Press, 1993.
43. Bailey, Anne J. “The Chessboard of War: Sherman and Hood in the Autumn Campaigns of 1864.” University of Nebraska Press, 2000.
44. Gallagher, Gary W. “Lee and His Army in Confederate History.” University of North Carolina Press, 2001.
45. Robertson, James I. “Stonewall Jackson: The Man, the Soldier, the Legend.” Macmillan, 1997.
46. Tanner, Robert G. “Stonewall in the Valley: Thomas J. ‘Stonewall’ Jackson’s Shenandoah Valley Campaign, Spring 1862.” Stackpole Books, 1996.
47. Blight, David W. “Frederick Douglass: Prophet of Freedom.” Simon & Schuster, 2018.
48. Douglass, Frederick. “Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave.” Anti-Slavery Office, 1845.
49. Foner, Philip S. “The Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass.” International Publishers, 1950–1975.
50. Levine, Robert S. “The Lives of Frederick Douglass.” Harvard University Press, 2016.
51. Larson, Kate Clifford. “Bound for the Promised Land: Harriet Tubman, Portrait of an American Hero.” Ballantine Books, 2003.
52. Clinton, Catherine. “Harriet Tubman: The Road to Freedom.” Little, Brown and Company, 2004.
53. Bradford, Sarah H. “Harriet Tubman: The Moses of Her People.” Geo. R. Lockwood & Son, 1886.
54. Humez, Jean M. “Harriet Tubman: The Life and the Life Stories.” University of Wisconsin Press, 2003.
55. Gates, Henry Louis, Jr., and Hollis Robbins. “Harriet Tubman: Literary Icon and American Hero.” Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.
56. Wright, Gavin. “Old South, New South: Revolutions in the Southern Economy Since the Civil War.” Basic Books, 1986.
57. Wiener, Jonathan M. “Social Origins of the New South: Alabama, 1860–1885.” Louisiana State University Press, 1978.
58. Ransom, Roger L. “Conflict and Compromise: The Political Economy of Slavery, Emancipation, and the American Civil War.” Cambridge University Press, 1989.
59. Woodman, Harold D. “New South, New Law: The Legal Foundations of Credit and Labor Relations in the Postbellum Agricultural South.” Louisiana State University Press, 1995.
60. Gallman, J. Matthew. “Mastering Wartime: A Social History of Philadelphia during the Civil War.” Cambridge University Press, 1990.
61. Porter, Glenn. “The Rise of Big Business, 1860–1910.” Harlan Davidson, 2006.62. Osthaus, Carl R. “Freedmen, Philanthropy, and Fraud: A History of the Freedman’s Savings Bank.” University of Illinois Press, 1976.
63. Faust, Drew Gilpin. “This Republic of Suffering: Death and the American Civil War.” Alfred A. Knopf, 2008.
64. Wilson, Charles Reagan. “The Confederate Monument: White Supremacy and the Neo-Confederate Past.” University of North Carolina Press, 2019.
65. Blight, David W. “Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory.
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